Research on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon pollution in sediments and waters of northern Lebanon: rivers, transition zones, and port sites
Journal: Region - Water Conservancy DOI: 10.32629/rwc.v7i1.3194
Abstract
Contamination of the marine environment is associated with continental activities, marine activities and accidental spills. Providing answers to the origin of the contamination of the aquatic environment by PAHs is an objective of the present work. The originality of this work is to study pollutants in two types of matrix (water and sediments) during 2 seasons (dry and wet) for an environmental monitoring of 6 years. This study provides a more complete overview of the state of contamination in three coastal rivers, their transition zones and harbors in the Eastern Mediterranean following the Jiyyeh oil spill in 2006.
Contaminants concentrations were expressed as the sum of the 16 PAHs classified as priority substances by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA). Overall, contamination was noted for all the analyzed sites. Oil spill seemed to be one of the main sources of pollution in the area, as the highest levels of PAH (> 9,000 ng.g-1 p.s and > 8,000 ng.L-1 ) were reported in the coastal environment of the three rivers and harbors.
High levels of PAHs were also observed in the transitional zones of rivers, revealing the importance of terrestrial inputs (untreated wastewater discharge, leachate, solid wastes, etc.).
Comparing the PAHs concentrations measured in the sediments of the sites analyzed with the empirical sediment quality criteria "SQG" for the support of the general assessment of sediment toxicity, we can notice that some individual PAH and their sum can present a significant ecotoxicological risk to aquatic organisms. Further research through monitoring campaigns and toxicity tests is encouraged, as the exposure of the resident aquatic organisms and human population to these chemicals might be expected to increase over the years.
Keywords
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs); toxicity; sediment; water; rivers; ports
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[2]Assunção M.A., Frena M., Stein Santos A.P., dos Santos Madureira L.A. 2017. Aliphatic and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface sediments collected from mangroves with different levels of urbanization in southern Brazil, Marine Pollution Bulletin, 119: 439–445.
[3]Astrahan P., Silverman J., Gertner Y., Herut B. 2017. Spatial distribution and sources of organicmatter and pollutants in the SE Mediterranean (Levantine basin) deep water sediments, Marine Pollution Bulletin, 116: 521–527.
[4]Baek S.O., Field R.A., Goldstone M.E., Kirk P.W., Kester J.N. 1991. A review of atmospheric PAHs: sources, fate and behaviour. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 60: 279-300.
[5]Baniemam M., Moradi A.M., Bakhtiari A.R., Fatemi M.R., Khanghah K.E. 2017. Seasonal variation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the surface sediments of the southern Caspian Sea, Marine Pollution Bulletin, 117: 478-485.
[6]Barakat A., Mostafa A., Wade T-L., Sweet S-T., El Sayed N-B. 2012. Assessment of persistent organochlorine pollutants in sediments from Lake Manzala, Egypt. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 64: 1713-1720.
[7]Baumard P., Budzinski H., Garrigues P. 1998 a. PAHs in Arcachon Bay, France: Origin and biomonitoring with caged organisms. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 36(8): 577-586.
[8]Baumard P., Budzinski H., Michon Q., Garrigues P., Burgeot T., Bellocq J. 1998 b. Origin and Bioavailability of PAHs in the Mediterranean Sea from Mussel and Sediment Records Estuarine. Coastal and Shelf Science, 47(1): 77-90.
[9]Bihari N., Fafandèl M., Hamer B., Kralj-Bilen B. 2006. PAH content, toxicity and genotoxicity of coastal marine sediments from the Rovinj area, Northern Adriatic, Croatia. Science of The Total Environment, 366: 602-611.
[10]Budzinski H., Jones I., Bellocq J., Pierard C., Carrigues P. 1997. Evaluation of sediments contamination by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Gironde estuary. Marine Chemistry, 58: 85-97.
[11]Cai W-J., Sayles F. L. 1996. Oxygen penetration depths and fluxes in marine sediments. Marine Chemistry, 52(2): 123-131.
[12]Cardellicchio N., Buccolieri A., Giandomenico S., Lopez L., Pizzulli F., Spada L. 2007. Organic pollutants (PAHs, PCBs) in sediments from the Mar Piccolo in Taranto (Ionian Sea, Southern Italy), Marine Pollution Bulletin, 55(10-12): 451- 458.
[13]Coulon F. 2014. Contribution à l’étude des sédiments marins lors d’opérations de dragage portuaire : re-sédimentation et mobilisation de la pollution organique. Matériaux. Université Montpellier II - Sciences et Techniques du Languedoc. 231 pp.
[14]David A., Fenet H., Gomez E., 2009. Alkylphenols in marine environments: Distribution monitoring strategies and detection considerations. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 58: 953-960
[15]Eisler R. 1987. PAH hazards on fish, wildlife and invertebrates: a synoptic review. Fish and Wildlifes Services, US Department of the Interior, Washington, DC. Vol. 11.
[16]El Nemr A., Said TO., Khaled A., El-Sikaily A., Abd-Allah AMA. 2007. The distribution and sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface sediments along the Egyptian Mediterranean coast. Environmental Monitoring Assessment, 124: 343-59.
[17]Eljarrat E., Caixach J., Rivera J., de Torres M., Ginebreda A. 2001. Toxic potency assessment of non- and mono-ortho PCBs, PCDDs, PCDFs, and PAHs in northwest Mediterranean sediments (Catalonia, Spain). Environmental Science and Technology, 35: 3589-3594.
[18]Erickson D.C., Loehr R.C., Neuhauser E.F. 1993. PAH loss during bioremediation of manufactured gas plant site soils. Water Research, 27(5): 911-919.
[19]Flowers L., Ohnishi T., Penning T. M. 1997. DNA strand scission by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon o-quinones: Role of reactive oxygen species, Cu(II)/Cu(I) redox cycling, and o-Semiquinone. Biochemistry, 36: 8640-8648.
[20]Gaspare L., Machiwa J.F., Mdachi S.J.M., Streck G., Brack W. 2009. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) contamination of surface sediments and oyster from inter-tidal areas of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Environmental Pollution, 157: 24-34.
[21]Gogou A., Bouloubassi I., Stephanou E.G. 2000. Marine organic geochemistry of the Eastern Mediterranean: 1. Aliphatic and polyaromatic hydrocarbons in Cretan Sea surficial sediments. Marine Chemistry, 68: 265-282.
[22]Haritash A. K., Kaushik C. P. 2009. Biodegradation aspects of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs): A review. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 169(1-3): 1- 15.
[23]Hatzianestis I., Sklivagou E., Friligos N. 1998. Hydrocarbons in surface sediments from the Northern Aegean Sea. Rapport de la commission international pour l’exploration scientifique de la Mer Méditerranée, 35: 264-265.
[24]Hellou J., Steller S., Leonard J., Langille M A., Tremblay D. 2005. Partitioning of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons between water and particles compared to bioaccumulation in mussels: a harbour case. Marine Environmental Research, 59: 101-117.
[25]International Development and Research Center (IDRC), Final technical report. Institutions for transboundary rivers: the Akkar watershed in Syria and Lebanon, August 2003, p. 63.
[26]Jaffe R., Gardinali P.R., Caia Y., Sudburrya A., Fernandeza A., Hay B.J. 2003. Organic compounds and trace metals of anthropogenic origin in sediments from Montego Bay, Jamaica: assessment of sources and distribution pathways. Environmental Pollution, 123: 291-299.
[27]Kahlaf G., Nakhle K., Abbou Abi-Saab M., Tronczynski J., Mouawad R., Fakhri M. 2006. Preliminary results of oil spill impact on Lebanese coastal waters. Lebanese Scientific Journal, 7(2): 135-153.
[28]Karacik B., Okay OS., Henkelmann B., Bernhöft S., Schramm KW. 2009. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and effects on marine organisms in the Istanbul Strait. Environment International, 35(3): 599-606.
[29]Kinani S., Bouchonnet S., Bourcier S., Creusot N., Balaguer P., Porcher J.M., AitAissa S. 2010. Bioanalytical characterisation of multiple endocrine- and dioxinlike activities in sediments from reference and impacted small rivers. Environmental Pollution, 158: 74-83.
[30]Kong L., Ferry J.L. 2004. Photochemical oxidation of chrysene at the silica gel-water interface. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A: Chemistry, 162: 415- 421.
[31]Lee B.C., Shimizu Y., Matsuda T., Matsui S. 2005. Characterization of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Different Size Fractions in Deposited Road Particles (DRPs) from Lake Biwa Area, Japan. Environmental Science and Technology, 39(19): 7402-7409.
[32]Linden O., Rust L. 2006. The oil Spill in Lebanon 2006: a Study of The distribution of petroleum hydrocarbons and PAHs in The coastal ecosystem. International oil Spill conference, 2008.
[33]Liu Y., Chena L., Huang Q., Li W.Y., Tang Y.J., Zhao J.F. 2009. Source apportionment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in surface sediments of the Huangpu River, Shanghai, China. Science of the Total Environment, 407(8): 2931-2938.
[34]Long E.R., Field L.R., MacDonald D.D. 1998. Predicting toxicity in marine sediments with numerical sediment quality guidelines. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 17 (4): 714-727.
[35]MacDonald D.D., Di Pinto L.M., Field L.J., Ingersoll C.G., Long E.R., Swartz R.C. 2000. Development and evaluation of consensus-based sediment effect concentrations for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB). Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 19: 1403-1413.
[36]Maciel D.C., Botelho de Souza J.R., Taniguchi S., Bicego M.C., Zanardi-Lamardo E. 2015. Sources and distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in an urbanized tropical estuary and adjacent shelf, Northeast of Brazil, Marine pollution bulletin, 101(1): 429-433
[37]MacRae J. D., Hall K. J. 1998. Biodegradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in marine sediment under denitrifying conditions. Water Science and Technology, 38(11): 177-185.
[38]Manneh R., Abi-Ghanem C., Khalaf G., Najjar E., El-Khoury B., El Zakhem H. 2016. Analysis of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Lebanese Surficial Sediments: A focus on the Regions of Tripoli, Jounieh, Dora, and Tyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 110:578-583.
[39]Martin P., Granina L., Martens K., Goddeeris B. 1998. Oxygen concentration profiles in sediments of two ancient lakes: Lake Baikal (Siberia, Russia) and Lake Malawi (East Africa). Hydrobiologia, 367(1): 163-174.
[40]Merhaby D., Net S., Halwami J., Ouddane B., 2015. Otganic pollution in surfucual sediments of Tripoli harbour, Lebanon. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 93: 284-293.
[41]Methods for Collection, Storage and Manipulation of Sediments for Chemical and Toxicological Analyses: Technical Manual, United States, Environmental Protection Agency, EPA-823-B-01-002 October 2001.
[42]Ministry of Environment (MOE), Lebanon marine and coastal oil pollution-international assistance-action plan, 15 August 2006.
[43]Nakata H., Uehara K., Goto Y., Fukumura M., Miyawaki T. 2014. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in oysters and sediments from the Yatsushiro Sea, Japan: Comparison of potential risks among PAHs, dioxins and dioxin-like compounds in benthic organisms. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 99: 61-68.
[44]Nikkilä A., Penttinen S. 1999. UV-B induced acute toxicity of pyrene to the waterflea Daphnia magna in antural freshwaters. Ecotoxicology and Environmental safety, 44: 271-279.
[45]Oris J.T., Tylka J.D. 1990. Humic acids reduce the photo-induced toxicity of anthracene to fish and Daphnia. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 9: 575-583.
[46]Parera J., Santos F.J., Galceran M.T. 2004. Microwave-assisted extraction versus Soxhlet extraction for the analysis of short-chain chlorinated alkanes in sediments. Journal of Chromatography, 1046(1-2): 19-26.
[47]Perez S., Dachs J., Barcelo D. 2003. Sea Breeze Modulated Volatilization of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons from the Masnou Harbor (NW Mediterranean Sea). Environmental Science & Technology, 37: 3794-3802.
[48]Qu C., Li J., Albanese S., Lima A., Wang M., Sacchi M., Molisso F., De Vivo, B. 2018. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the sediments of the Gulfs of Naples and Salerno, Southern Italy: Status, sources and ecological risk. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 161: 156-163.
[49]Raoux C. 1991. Modélisation du mécanisme de contamination par les hydrocarbures aromatiques polycycliques (HAP) des sédiments côtiers de Méditerranée: conséquences sur la biodisponibilité des HAP dans les milieux marins. Thèse : Université Bordeaux1, Bordeaux, France.
[50]Samara F., Tsai CW., Aga DS. 2006. Determination of potential sources of PCBs and PBDEs in sediments of the Niagara River. Environmental Pollution, 139(3): 489-97.
[51]Swartz R. C. 1999. Consensus sediment quality guidelines for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon mixtures. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 18(4): 780- 787.
[52]Tam N.F.Y., Ke L., Wang X.H., Wong, Y.S. 2001. Concentration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface sediments of mangrove swamps. Environmental Pollution, 114: 255-263.
[53]Tolun L., Martens D., Okay OS., Schramm KW. 2006. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contamination in coastal sediments of the Izmit Bay (Marmara Sea) : case studies before and after the Izmit Earthquake. Environment International, 32(6): 758-65.
[54]Trabelsi S., Driss M.R. 2005. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in superficial coastal sediments from Bizerte Lagoon, Tunisia. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 50: 344- 358.
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