A Systematic Review of Task Complexity in Language Learning
Journal: Journal of Higher Education Research DOI: 10.32629/jher.v3i5.1053
Abstract
Task complexity has attracted increasing attention from researchers since it plays a crucial role in language learning. Researchers have examined it using various perspectives and achieved different results in terms of language learning. Nevertheless, to have a clear and overall understanding of the significance of task complexity, some questions are raised: (1) What are the appropriate theoretical frameworks?; (2) What other factors are relevant to task complexity?; (3) How is language learning related to task complexity? This literature review aims to map the results and findings of task complexity in language learning to answer the above three questions. According to the PRISMA diagram 2020, 23 articles from SCOPUS between 2012 and 2020 were selected for analysis. Findings show that task complexity is one of the most important factors in different language tasks based on two hypotheses, i.e. Cognitive Hypothesis and Limited Attentional Capacity Hypothesis. In addition, factors such as aptitude and working memory usually are co-studied with task complexity. Finally, limitations and further questions are concluded.
Keywords
PRISMA, task complexity, TBLT, language learning
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[1]Adams, R., Alwi, N. A. N. M., & Newton, J. (2015). Task complexity effects on the complexity and accuracy of writing via text chat. Journal of second language writing, 29, 64-81. doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2015.06.002
[2]Alwi, N. A. N. M., Adams, R., & Newton, J. (2012). Writing to learn via text chat: Task implementation and focus on form. Journal of second language writing, 21(1), 23-39. doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2011.12.001
[3]Archibald, L. M. (2017). Working memory and language learning: A review. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 33(1), 5-17. doi:10.1177/0265659016654206
[4]Attarzade, S., & Farahani, E. (2014). The effect of task complexity on Iranian EFL learners' listening comprehension across aptitude. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 98, 314-323. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.03.422
[5]Awwad, A. (2019). L2 Learners' and Professionals' Perceptions of Cognitive Task Complexity: Towards Developing an Index of Task Difficulty. Journal of Asia TEFL, 16(2), 468. doi:10.18823/asiatefl.2019.16.2.2.468
[6]Awwad, A., & Tavakoli, P. (2019). Task complexity, language proficiency and working memory: Interaction effects on second language speech performance. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 1. doi:10.1515/iral-2018-0378
[7]Bryfonski, L., & McKay, T. H. (2019). TBLT implementation and evaluation: A meta-analysis. Language Teaching Research, 23(5), 603-632. doi:10.1177/1362168817744389
[8]Calvert, M., & Sheen, Y. (2015). Task-based language learning and teaching: An action-research study. Language Teaching Research, 19(2), 226-244. doi:10.1177/1362168814547037
[9]Cho, M. (2018). Task complexity, modality, and working memory in L2 task performance. System, 72, 85-98. doi:10.1016/j.system.2017.10.010
[10]de Jong, N., & Vercellotti, M. L. (2016). Similar prompts may not be similar in the performance they elicit: Examining fluency, complexity, accuracy, and lexis in narratives from five picture prompts. Language Teaching Research, 20(3), 387-404. doi:10.1177/1362168815606161
[11]Dybå, T., & Dingsøyr, T. (2008). Empirical studies of agile software development: A systematic review. Information and software technology, 50(9-10), 833-859. doi:10.1016/j.infsof.2008.01.006
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[13]Ehrman, M. E., Leaver, B. L., & Oxford, R. L. (2003). A brief overview of individual differences in second language learning. System, 31(3), 313-330. doi:10.1016/S0346-251X(03)00045-9
[14]Jackson, D. O., & Suethanapornkul, S. (2013). The cognition hypothesis: A synthesis and meta‐analysis of research on second language task complexity. Language Learning, 63(2), 330-367. doi:10.1111/lang.12008
[15]Kang, S., & Lee, J. H. (2019). Are two heads always better than one? The effects of collaborative planning on L2 writing in relation to task complexity. Journal of Second Language Writing, 45, 61-72. doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2019.08.001
[16]Kim, N. (2020). Conditions and Tasks: The Effects of Planning and Task Complexity on L2 Speaking. Journal of Asia TEFL, 17(1), 34. doi:10.18823/asiatefl.2020.17.1.3.34
[17]Kim, Y., Jung, Y., & Tracy‐Ventura, N. (2017). Implementation of a Localized Task‐Based Course in an EFL Context: A Study of Students' Evolving Perceptions. TESOL Quarterly, 51(3), 632-660. doi: 10.1002/tesq.381
[18]Kim, Y., Payant, C., & Pearson, P. (2015). The intersection of task-based interaction, task complexity, and working memory: L2 question development through recasts in a laboratory setting. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 37(3), 549-581. doi:10.1017/S0272263114000618
[19]Khatib, M., & Farahanynia, M. (2020). Planning conditions (strategic planning, task repetition, and joint planning), cognitive task complexity, and task type: Effects on L2 oral performance. System, 93, 102297. doi:10.1016/j.system.2020.102297
[20]Kourtali, N. E., & Révész, A. (2020). The roles of recasts, task complexity, and aptitude in child second language development. Language Learning, 70(1), 179-218. doi:10.1111/lang.12374
[21]Kormos, J., & Trebits, A. (2012). The role of task complexity, modality, and aptitude in narrative task performance. Language Learning, 62(2), 439-472. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2012.00695.x
[22]Kuiken, F., & Vedder, I. (2008). Cognitive task complexity and written output in Italian and French as a foreign language. Journal of second language writing, 17(1), 48-60. doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2007.08.003
[23]Lee, J. (2019). Time-on-task as a measure of cognitive load in TBLT. Journal of Asia TEFL, 16(3), 958. doi:10.18823/asiatefl.2019.16.3.12.958
[24]Lee, J. (2020). An Error Analysis of L2 Writing: How Does Task Complexity Affect L2 Errors? The Journal of AsiaTEFL, 17(3), 954-965. doi:10.18823/asiatefl.2020.17.3.13.954
[25]Long, M. H. (2016). In defense of tasks and TBLT: Nonissues and real issues. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 36, 5-33. doi:10.1017/S0267190515000057
[26]Mao, Z. (2012). The Application of Task-based Language Teaching to English Reading Classroom. Theory & Practice in Language Studies, 2(11). doi:10.4304/tpls.2.11.2430-2438
[27]Masrom, U. K., Alwi, N. A. N. M., & Daud, N. S. M. (2015). The role of task complexity and task motivation in language production. GEMA Online® Journal of Language Studies, 15(2). doi:10.17576/gema-2015-1502-03
[28]Michel, M. C. (2013). The use of conjunctions in cognitively simple versus complex oral L2 tasks. The Modern Language Journal, 97(1), 178-195. doi:10.2307/23361745
[29]Mohammad, M. K. M., & Alwi, N. A. (2019). The impact of task complexity on EFL learners' writing production across gender. International Journal of Engineering and Advanced Technology, 8(5), 1218-1220. doi:10.35940/ijeat.E1172.0585C19
[30]Monteiro, K., & Kim, Y. (2020). The effect of input characteristics and individual differences on L2 comprehension of authentic and modified listening tasks. System, 94, 102336. doi:10.1016/j.system.2020.102336
[31]Navidinia, H., Ozhan, A. R., & Younesi, A. (2018). Using pictures in EFL classrooms: Exploring its potential contribution for developing students' writing skill. Asia Pacific Journal of Educators and Education, 33, 1-17. doi:10.21315/apjee2018.33.1
[32]Prabhu, N. (1987). Second language pedagogy: a perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
[33]Révész, A. (2014). Towards a fuller assessment of cognitive models of task-based learning: Investigating task-generated cognitive demands and processes. Applied Linguistics, 35(1), 87-92. doi:10.1093/applin/amt039
[34]Révész, A., Kourtali, N. E., & Mazgutova, D. (2017). Effects of task complexity on L2 writing behaviors and linguistic complexity. Language Learning, 67(1), 208-241. doi:10.1111/lang.12205
[35]Révész, A., Michel, M., & Gilabert, R. (2016). Measuring cognitive task demands using dual-task methodology, subjective self-ratings, and expert judgments: A validation study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 38(4), 703-737. doi:10.1017/S0272263115000339
[36]Richard, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2014). Approaches and methods in language teaching. Cambridge university press.
[37]Robinson, P. (2003). The cognitive hypothesis, task design, and adult task-based language learning. University of Hawai'I Second Langauge Studies Paper 21 (2).
[38]Robinson, P. (2007). Task complexity, theory of mind, and intentional reasoning: Effects on L2 speech production, interaction, uptake and perceptions of task difficulty. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 45(3), 193-213. doi:10.1515/iral.2007.009
[39]Robinson, P. (2011). Task‐based language learning: A review of issues. Language learning, 61, 1-36. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2011.00641.x
[40]Robinson, P., & Gilabert, R. (2007). Task complexity, the Cognition Hypothesis and second language learning and performance. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 45(3), 161-176. doi:10.1515/IRAL.2007.007
[41]Ellis, R. (2000). Task-based research and language pedagogy. Language teaching research, 4(3), 193-220. doi:10.1177/136216880000400302
[42]Sadiku, L. M. (2015). The importance of four skills reading, speaking, writing, listening in a lesson hour. European Journal of Language and Literature, 1(1), 29-31. doi:10.26417/ejls.v1i1.p29-31
[43]Salimi, A., Alavinia, P., & Hosseini, P. (2012). The Effect of Strategic Planning Time and Task Complexity on L2 Written Accuracy. Theory & Practice in Language Studies, 2(11). doi:10.4304/tpls.2.11.2398-2406
[44]Salimi, A., & Dadashpour, S. (2012). Task complexity and SL development: Does task complexity matter? Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 46, 726-735. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.05.189
[45]Sasayama, S. (2016). Is a 'complex' task really complex? Validating the assumption of cognitive task complexity. The Modern Language Journal, 100(1), 231-254. doi:10.1111/modl.12313
[46]Sattarpour, S., & Farrokhi, F. (2017). Exploring the Interplay of Planning Time, Reasoning Demands, and Language Learning Aptitude in Iranian EFL Learners' Written Production. Journal of Asia TEFL, 14(4), 736. doi:10.18823/asiatefl.2017.14.4.10.736
[47]Skehan, P. (2015). Limited attention capacity and cognition. In M. Bygate (Ed.), Domains and directions in the development of TBLT (Vol. 8, pp. 123-155). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. Doi:10.4324/9781315629766-5
[48]Skehan, P. (2009). Modelling second language performance: Integrating complexity, accuracy, fluency, and lexis. Applied linguistics, 30(4), 510-532. doi:10.1093/applin/amp047
[49]Torres, J. (2018). The effects of task complexity on heritage and L2 Spanish development. Canadian Modern Language Review, 74(1), 128-152. doi:10.3138/cmlr.3770
[50]Qureshi, M. I., Khan, N., Hassan Gillani, S. M. A., & Raza, H. (2020). A Systematic Review of Past Decade of Mobile Learning: What we Learned and Where to Go. International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies, 14(6). doi:10.3991/ijim.v14i06.13479
[51]Yousefi, M. H., Mohammadi, E. G., & Koosha, M. (2012). Task Complexity and Its Implication for Pedagogy. Theory & Practice in Language Studies, 2(7). doi:10.4304/tpls.2.7.1436-1444
[52]Zhai, K., & Gao, X. (2018). Effects of corrective feedback on EFL speaking task complexity in China's university classroom. Cogent Education, 5(1), 1485472. doi:10.1080/2331186X.2018.1485472
[2]Alwi, N. A. N. M., Adams, R., & Newton, J. (2012). Writing to learn via text chat: Task implementation and focus on form. Journal of second language writing, 21(1), 23-39. doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2011.12.001
[3]Archibald, L. M. (2017). Working memory and language learning: A review. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 33(1), 5-17. doi:10.1177/0265659016654206
[4]Attarzade, S., & Farahani, E. (2014). The effect of task complexity on Iranian EFL learners' listening comprehension across aptitude. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 98, 314-323. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.03.422
[5]Awwad, A. (2019). L2 Learners' and Professionals' Perceptions of Cognitive Task Complexity: Towards Developing an Index of Task Difficulty. Journal of Asia TEFL, 16(2), 468. doi:10.18823/asiatefl.2019.16.2.2.468
[6]Awwad, A., & Tavakoli, P. (2019). Task complexity, language proficiency and working memory: Interaction effects on second language speech performance. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 1. doi:10.1515/iral-2018-0378
[7]Bryfonski, L., & McKay, T. H. (2019). TBLT implementation and evaluation: A meta-analysis. Language Teaching Research, 23(5), 603-632. doi:10.1177/1362168817744389
[8]Calvert, M., & Sheen, Y. (2015). Task-based language learning and teaching: An action-research study. Language Teaching Research, 19(2), 226-244. doi:10.1177/1362168814547037
[9]Cho, M. (2018). Task complexity, modality, and working memory in L2 task performance. System, 72, 85-98. doi:10.1016/j.system.2017.10.010
[10]de Jong, N., & Vercellotti, M. L. (2016). Similar prompts may not be similar in the performance they elicit: Examining fluency, complexity, accuracy, and lexis in narratives from five picture prompts. Language Teaching Research, 20(3), 387-404. doi:10.1177/1362168815606161
[11]Dybå, T., & Dingsøyr, T. (2008). Empirical studies of agile software development: A systematic review. Information and software technology, 50(9-10), 833-859. doi:10.1016/j.infsof.2008.01.006
[12]Ellis, R. (2009). Task‐based language teaching: Sorting out the misunderstandings. International journal of applied linguistics, 19(3), 221-246. doi:10.1111/j.1473-4192.2009.00231.x
[13]Ehrman, M. E., Leaver, B. L., & Oxford, R. L. (2003). A brief overview of individual differences in second language learning. System, 31(3), 313-330. doi:10.1016/S0346-251X(03)00045-9
[14]Jackson, D. O., & Suethanapornkul, S. (2013). The cognition hypothesis: A synthesis and meta‐analysis of research on second language task complexity. Language Learning, 63(2), 330-367. doi:10.1111/lang.12008
[15]Kang, S., & Lee, J. H. (2019). Are two heads always better than one? The effects of collaborative planning on L2 writing in relation to task complexity. Journal of Second Language Writing, 45, 61-72. doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2019.08.001
[16]Kim, N. (2020). Conditions and Tasks: The Effects of Planning and Task Complexity on L2 Speaking. Journal of Asia TEFL, 17(1), 34. doi:10.18823/asiatefl.2020.17.1.3.34
[17]Kim, Y., Jung, Y., & Tracy‐Ventura, N. (2017). Implementation of a Localized Task‐Based Course in an EFL Context: A Study of Students' Evolving Perceptions. TESOL Quarterly, 51(3), 632-660. doi: 10.1002/tesq.381
[18]Kim, Y., Payant, C., & Pearson, P. (2015). The intersection of task-based interaction, task complexity, and working memory: L2 question development through recasts in a laboratory setting. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 37(3), 549-581. doi:10.1017/S0272263114000618
[19]Khatib, M., & Farahanynia, M. (2020). Planning conditions (strategic planning, task repetition, and joint planning), cognitive task complexity, and task type: Effects on L2 oral performance. System, 93, 102297. doi:10.1016/j.system.2020.102297
[20]Kourtali, N. E., & Révész, A. (2020). The roles of recasts, task complexity, and aptitude in child second language development. Language Learning, 70(1), 179-218. doi:10.1111/lang.12374
[21]Kormos, J., & Trebits, A. (2012). The role of task complexity, modality, and aptitude in narrative task performance. Language Learning, 62(2), 439-472. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2012.00695.x
[22]Kuiken, F., & Vedder, I. (2008). Cognitive task complexity and written output in Italian and French as a foreign language. Journal of second language writing, 17(1), 48-60. doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2007.08.003
[23]Lee, J. (2019). Time-on-task as a measure of cognitive load in TBLT. Journal of Asia TEFL, 16(3), 958. doi:10.18823/asiatefl.2019.16.3.12.958
[24]Lee, J. (2020). An Error Analysis of L2 Writing: How Does Task Complexity Affect L2 Errors? The Journal of AsiaTEFL, 17(3), 954-965. doi:10.18823/asiatefl.2020.17.3.13.954
[25]Long, M. H. (2016). In defense of tasks and TBLT: Nonissues and real issues. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 36, 5-33. doi:10.1017/S0267190515000057
[26]Mao, Z. (2012). The Application of Task-based Language Teaching to English Reading Classroom. Theory & Practice in Language Studies, 2(11). doi:10.4304/tpls.2.11.2430-2438
[27]Masrom, U. K., Alwi, N. A. N. M., & Daud, N. S. M. (2015). The role of task complexity and task motivation in language production. GEMA Online® Journal of Language Studies, 15(2). doi:10.17576/gema-2015-1502-03
[28]Michel, M. C. (2013). The use of conjunctions in cognitively simple versus complex oral L2 tasks. The Modern Language Journal, 97(1), 178-195. doi:10.2307/23361745
[29]Mohammad, M. K. M., & Alwi, N. A. (2019). The impact of task complexity on EFL learners' writing production across gender. International Journal of Engineering and Advanced Technology, 8(5), 1218-1220. doi:10.35940/ijeat.E1172.0585C19
[30]Monteiro, K., & Kim, Y. (2020). The effect of input characteristics and individual differences on L2 comprehension of authentic and modified listening tasks. System, 94, 102336. doi:10.1016/j.system.2020.102336
[31]Navidinia, H., Ozhan, A. R., & Younesi, A. (2018). Using pictures in EFL classrooms: Exploring its potential contribution for developing students' writing skill. Asia Pacific Journal of Educators and Education, 33, 1-17. doi:10.21315/apjee2018.33.1
[32]Prabhu, N. (1987). Second language pedagogy: a perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
[33]Révész, A. (2014). Towards a fuller assessment of cognitive models of task-based learning: Investigating task-generated cognitive demands and processes. Applied Linguistics, 35(1), 87-92. doi:10.1093/applin/amt039
[34]Révész, A., Kourtali, N. E., & Mazgutova, D. (2017). Effects of task complexity on L2 writing behaviors and linguistic complexity. Language Learning, 67(1), 208-241. doi:10.1111/lang.12205
[35]Révész, A., Michel, M., & Gilabert, R. (2016). Measuring cognitive task demands using dual-task methodology, subjective self-ratings, and expert judgments: A validation study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 38(4), 703-737. doi:10.1017/S0272263115000339
[36]Richard, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2014). Approaches and methods in language teaching. Cambridge university press.
[37]Robinson, P. (2003). The cognitive hypothesis, task design, and adult task-based language learning. University of Hawai'I Second Langauge Studies Paper 21 (2).
[38]Robinson, P. (2007). Task complexity, theory of mind, and intentional reasoning: Effects on L2 speech production, interaction, uptake and perceptions of task difficulty. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 45(3), 193-213. doi:10.1515/iral.2007.009
[39]Robinson, P. (2011). Task‐based language learning: A review of issues. Language learning, 61, 1-36. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2011.00641.x
[40]Robinson, P., & Gilabert, R. (2007). Task complexity, the Cognition Hypothesis and second language learning and performance. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 45(3), 161-176. doi:10.1515/IRAL.2007.007
[41]Ellis, R. (2000). Task-based research and language pedagogy. Language teaching research, 4(3), 193-220. doi:10.1177/136216880000400302
[42]Sadiku, L. M. (2015). The importance of four skills reading, speaking, writing, listening in a lesson hour. European Journal of Language and Literature, 1(1), 29-31. doi:10.26417/ejls.v1i1.p29-31
[43]Salimi, A., Alavinia, P., & Hosseini, P. (2012). The Effect of Strategic Planning Time and Task Complexity on L2 Written Accuracy. Theory & Practice in Language Studies, 2(11). doi:10.4304/tpls.2.11.2398-2406
[44]Salimi, A., & Dadashpour, S. (2012). Task complexity and SL development: Does task complexity matter? Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 46, 726-735. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.05.189
[45]Sasayama, S. (2016). Is a 'complex' task really complex? Validating the assumption of cognitive task complexity. The Modern Language Journal, 100(1), 231-254. doi:10.1111/modl.12313
[46]Sattarpour, S., & Farrokhi, F. (2017). Exploring the Interplay of Planning Time, Reasoning Demands, and Language Learning Aptitude in Iranian EFL Learners' Written Production. Journal of Asia TEFL, 14(4), 736. doi:10.18823/asiatefl.2017.14.4.10.736
[47]Skehan, P. (2015). Limited attention capacity and cognition. In M. Bygate (Ed.), Domains and directions in the development of TBLT (Vol. 8, pp. 123-155). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. Doi:10.4324/9781315629766-5
[48]Skehan, P. (2009). Modelling second language performance: Integrating complexity, accuracy, fluency, and lexis. Applied linguistics, 30(4), 510-532. doi:10.1093/applin/amp047
[49]Torres, J. (2018). The effects of task complexity on heritage and L2 Spanish development. Canadian Modern Language Review, 74(1), 128-152. doi:10.3138/cmlr.3770
[50]Qureshi, M. I., Khan, N., Hassan Gillani, S. M. A., & Raza, H. (2020). A Systematic Review of Past Decade of Mobile Learning: What we Learned and Where to Go. International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies, 14(6). doi:10.3991/ijim.v14i06.13479
[51]Yousefi, M. H., Mohammadi, E. G., & Koosha, M. (2012). Task Complexity and Its Implication for Pedagogy. Theory & Practice in Language Studies, 2(7). doi:10.4304/tpls.2.7.1436-1444
[52]Zhai, K., & Gao, X. (2018). Effects of corrective feedback on EFL speaking task complexity in China's university classroom. Cogent Education, 5(1), 1485472. doi:10.1080/2331186X.2018.1485472
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