Early Detection for Prostate Cancer: An Update
Journal: Advances in Medicine and Engineering Interdisciplinary Research DOI: 10.32629/ameir.v2i3.2609
Abstract
Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most frequent cancer in men in Chile, ranking fourth with regards to mortality according to the latest GLOBOCAN 2022 statistics. The objective of this review is to clarify what methods exist for preventing PCa, as well as updating screening recommendations based on the latest available evidence. Numerous risk factors have been described for PCa, including modifiable factors such as age, race, and family history. In this context, the importance of PCa screening is heightened. Despite certain controversy regarding the usefulness of prostate-specific antigen (PSA), screening has demonstrated that it increases the diagnosis of PCa in early stages, reducing mortality by up to 30%. The objective of this review is to provide commentary on the known risk factors for PCa and the usefulness of PCa screening, considering the use of new tools such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in the diagnosis of the disease.
Keywords
prostate cancer; cancer screening; risk factors
Full Text
PDF - Viewed/Downloaded: 0 TimesReferences
[1] WHO. World Health Organization. International Agency for Research on Cancer. Global Cancer Observatory. Cancer Today. GLOBOCAN 2024. Population fact sheets: World. https://gco.iarc.who.int/ media/globocan/factsheets/populations/900-world-fact-sheet.pdf
[2] WHO. World Health Organization. International Agency for Research on Cancer. Global Cancer Observatory. Cancer Today. GLOBOCAN 2024. Population fact sheets: Chile. https://gco.iarc.who.int/ media/globocan/factsheets/populations/152-chile-fact-sheet.pdf
[3] Catalona WJ. History of the discovery and clinical translation of prostate-specific antigen. Asian J Urol. 2014;1(1):12-14. doi: 10.1016/j.ajur.2014.09.008
[4] Etzioni R, Tsodikov A, Mariotto A, Szabo A, Falcon S, Wegelin J, et al. Quantifying the role of PSA screening in the US prostate cancer mortality decline. Cancer Causes Control. 2008;19(2):175-181. doi: 10.1007/s10552-007-9083-8
[5] Moradi S, Issah A, Mohammadi H, Mirzaei K. Associations between dietary inflammatory index and incidence of breast and prostate cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrition. 2018;55-56:168-178. doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2018.04.018
[6] Bergengren O, Pekala KR, Matsoukas K, Fainberg J, Mungovan SF, Bratt O, et al. 2022 update on prostate cancer epidemiology and risk factors-a systematic review. Eur Urol. 2023;84(2):191-206. doi: 10.1016/j.eururo.2023.04.021
[7] Fang X, Wei J, He X, Lian J, Han D, An P, et al. Quantitative association between body mass index and the risk of cancer: a global Meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Int J Cancer. 2018;143(7):1595-1603. doi: 10.1002/ijc.31553
[8] Mottet N, van den Bergh RCN, Briers E, Van den Broeck T, Cumberbatch MG, De Santis M, et al. EAU-EANM-ESTRO-ESUR-SIOG Guidelines on Prostate Cancer-2020 Update. Part 1: Screening, Diagnosis, and Local Treatment with Curative Intent. Eur Urol. 2021;79(2):243-262. doi: 10.1016/j.eururo.2020.09.042
[9] Siegel RL, Miller KD, Fuchs HE, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2022. CA Cancer J Clin. 2022;72(1):7-33. doi: 10.3322/caac.21708
[10] Bell KJ, Del Mar C, Wright G, Dickinson J, Glasziou P. Prevalence of incidental prostate cancer: a systematic review of autopsy studies. Int J Cancer. 2015;137(7):1749-1757. doi: 10.1002/ijc.29538.
[11] Gong J, Kim DM, Freeman MR, Kim H, Ellis L, Smith B, et al. Genetic and biological drivers of prostate cancer disparities in Black men. Nat Rev Urol. 2023. doi: 10.1038/s41585-023-00828-w.
[12] Giri VN, Obeid E, Gross L, Bealin L, Hyatt C, Hegarty SE, et al. Inherited mutations in men undergoing multigene panel testing for prostate cancer: emerging implications for personalized prostate cancer genetic evaluation. JCO Precis Oncol. 2017;1:PO.16.00039. doi: 10.1200/PO.16.00039
[13] Johns LE, Houlston RS. A systematic review and meta-analysis of familial prostate cancer risk. BJU Int. 2003;91(9):789-794. doi: 10.1046/j.1464-410x.2003.04232.x
[14] Albright F, Stephenson RA, Agarwal N, Teerlink CC, Lowrance WT, Farnham JM, et al. Prostate cancer risk prediction based on complete prostate cancer family history. Prostate. 2015;75(4):390-398. doi: 10.1002/pros.22925
[15] Pritchard CC, Mateo J, Walsh MF, De Sarkar N, Abida W, Beltran H, et al. Inherited DNA-repair gene mutations in men with metastatic prostate cancer. N Engl J Med. 2016; 375(5):443-453. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1603144
[16] Nicolosi P, Ledet E, Yang S, Michalski S, Freschi B, O'Leary E, et al. Prevalence of germline variants in prostate cancer and implications for current genetic testing guidelines. JAMA Oncol. 2019;5(4):523-528. doi: 10.1001/jamaoncol.2018.6760
[17] Cheng HH, Sokolova AO, Schaeffer EM, Small EJ, Higano CS. Germline and somatic mutations in prostate cancer for the clinician. J Natl Compr Canc Netw. 2019;17(5):515-21. doi: 10.6004/jnccn.2019.7307
[18] Ewing CM, Ray AM, Lange EM, Zuhlke KA, Robbins CM, Tembe WD, et al. Germline mutations in HOXB13 and prostate-cancer risk. N Engl J Med. 2012;366(2):141-149. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1110000
[19] de Bono J, Mateo J, Fizazi K, Saad F, Shore N, Sandhu S, et al. Olaparib for metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(22):2091-2102. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1911440
[20] Dominguez-Valentin M, Sampson JR, Seppälä TT, Ten Broeke SW, Plazzer JP, Nakken S, et al. Cancer risks by gene, age, and gender in 6,350 carriers of pathogenic mismatch repair variants: findings from the Prospective Lynch Syndrome Database. Genet Med. 2020;22(1):15-25. doi: 10.1038/s41436-019-0596-9
[21] LaDuca H, Polley EC, Yussuf A, Hoang L, Gutierrez S, Hart SN, et al. A clinical guide to hereditary cancer panel testing: evaluation of gene-specific cancer associations and sensitivity of genetic testing criteria in a cohort of 165,000 high-risk patients. Genet Med. 2020;22(2):407-415. doi: 10.1038/s41436-019-0633-8
[22] Russo J, Giri VN. Germline testing and genetic counselling in prostate cancer. Nat Rev Urol. 2022;19(6):331-343. doi: 10.1038/s41585- 022-00580-7
[23] Giri VN, Gross L, Gomella LG, Hyatt C. How I do it: genetic counseling and genetic testing for inherited prostate cancer. Can J Urol. 2016;23(2):8247-8253.
[24] Moses KA, Sprenkle PC, Bahler C, Box G, Carlsson SV, Catalona WJ, et al. NCCN Guidelines® Insights: Prostate Cancer Early Detection, Version 1. 2023. J Natl Compr Canc Netw. 2023;21(3):236-246. doi: 10.6004/jnccn.2023.0014
[25] National Cancer Institute. 2020. SEER Cancer Stat Facts: Prostate Cancer. Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results Program. https://seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/prost.html
[26] Doan DK, Schmidt KT, Chau CH, Figg WD. Germline genetics of prostate cancer: prevalence of risk variants and clinical implications for disease management. Cancers (Basel). 2021;13(9):2154. doi: 10.3390/cancers13092154
[27] Giri VN, Knudsen KE, Kelly WK, Cheng HH, Cooney KA, Cookson MS, et al. Implementation of germline testing for prostate cancer: philadelphia prostate cancer consensus conference 2019. J Clin Oncol. 2020;38(24):2798-2811. doi: 10.1200/JCO.20.00046
[28] Erickson A, Sandeman K, Lahdensuo K, Nordling S, Kallajoki M, Seikkula H, et al. New prostate cancer grade grouping system predicts survival after radical prostatectomy. Hum Pathol. 2018;5:159-166. doi: 10.1016/j.humpath.2018.01.027
[29] Tosoian JJ, Mamawala M, Epstein JI, Landis P, Macura KJ, Simopoulos DN, et al. Active surveillance of grade group 1 prostate cancer: long-term outcomes from a large prospective cohort. Eur Urol. 2020;77(6):675-682. doi: 10.1016/j.eururo.2019.12.017
[30] Wei JT, Barocas D, Carlsson S, Coakley F, Eggener S, Etzioni R, et al. Early Detection of prostate cancer: AUA/SUO guideline part i: prostate cancer screening. J Urol. 2023;210(1):46-53. doi: 10.1097/JU.0000000000003491
[31] Preston MA. Screening for prostate cancer. In: UpToDate, Elmore JG, (Ed). (Accessed on August 7, 2023.)
[32] Schröder FH, Hugosson J, Roobol MJ, Tammela TL, Zappa M, Nelen V, et al.; ERSPC Investigators. Screening and prostate cancer mortality: results of the European Randomised Study of Screening for Prostate Cancer (ERSPC) at 13 years of follow-up. Lancet. 2014;384(9959):2027-2035. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60525-0
[33] Hugosson J, Roobol MJ, Månsson M, Tammela TLJ, Zappa M, Nelen V, et al.; ERSPC investigators. A 16-yr follow-up of the European randomized study of screening for prostate cancer. Eur Urol. 2019;76(1):43-51. doi: 10.1016/j.eururo.2019.02.009
[34] Andriole GL, Crawford ED, Grubb RL 3rd, Buys SS, Chia D, Church TR, et al.; PLCO Project Team. Mortality results from a randomized prostate cancer screening trial. N Engl J Med. 2009;360(13):1310-1319. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa0810696. Erratum in: N Engl J Med. 2009;360(17):1797.
[35] Ilic D, Djulbegovic M, Jung JH, Hwang EC, Zhou Q, Cleves A, et al. Prostate cancer screening with prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2018;362:k3519. doi: 10.1136/bmj.k3519
[36] SEER*Explorer: An interactive website for SEER cancer statistics. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute; 2023 Apr 19. https://seer.cancer.gov/statistics-network/explorer
[37] Moyer VA; U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for prostate cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med. 2012;157(2):120-134. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-157-2-201207170-00459
[38] Butler SS, Muralidhar V, Zhao SG, Sanford NN, Franco I, Fullerton ZH, et al. Prostate cancer incidence across stage, NCCN risk groups, and age before and after USPSTF Grade D recommendations against prostate specific antigen screening in 2012. Cancer. 2020;126(4):717-724. doi: 10.1002/cncr.32604
[39] EAU Guidelines. Edn. Presented at the EAU Annual Congress Milan 2023. ISBN 978-94-92671-19-6
[40] Matsukawa A, Yanagisawa T, Bekku K, Kardoust Parizi M, Laukhtina E, Klemm J, et al. Comparing the performance of digital rectal examination and prostate-specific antigen as a screening test for prostate cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Urol Oncol. 2024:S2588-9311(23)00292-4. doi: 10.1016/j.euo.2023.12.005
[41] Eichler K, Hempel S, Wilby J, Myers L, Bachmann LM, Kleijnen J. Diagnostic value of systematic biopsy methods in the investigation of prostate cancer: a systematic review. J Urol. 2006;175(5):1605-1612. doi: 10.1016/S0022-5347(05)00957-2
[42] Valerio M, Willis S, van der Meulen J, Emberton M, Ahmed HU. Methodological considerations in assessing the utility of imaging in early prostate cancer. Curr Opin Urol. 2015;25(6):536-642. doi: 10.1097/MOU.0000000000000219
[43] Shaw GL, Thomas BC, Dawson SN, Srivastava G, Vowler SL, Gnanapragasam VJ, et al. Identification of pathologically insignificant prostate cancer is not accurate in unscreened men. Br J Cancer. 2014;110(10):2405-2411. doi: 10.1038/bjc.2014.192
[44] Elwenspoek MMC, Sheppard AL, McInnes MDF, Merriel SWD, Rowe EWJ, Bryant RJ, et al. Comparison of multiparametric magnetic resonance imaging and targeted biopsy with systematic biopsy alone for the diagnosis of prostate cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Netw Open. 2019;2(8):e198427. doi: 10.1001/ jamanetworkopen.2019.8427
[45] Kasivisvanathan V, Rannikko AS, Borghi M, Panebianco V, Mynderse LA, Vaarala MH, et al.; PRECISION Study Group Collaborators. MRI-targeted or standard biopsy for prostate-cancer diagnosis. N Engl J Med. 2018; 378(19):1767-1777. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1801993
[46] Eklund M, Jäderling F, Discacciati A, Bergman M, Annerstedt M, Aly M, et al.; STHLM3 consortium. MRI-targeted or standard biopsy in prostate cancer screening. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(10):908-920. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2100852
[47] Tu X, Liu Z, Zhang C, Chang T, Xu H, Bao Y, et al. Diagnostic role of magnetic resonance imaging-targeted biopsy for prostate cancer in biopsy-naïve men: a meta-analysis. Urol Int. 2020; 104(3-4):187-198. doi: 10.1159/000504028
[48] Woo S, Suh CH, Eastham JA, Zelefsky MJ, Morris MJ, Abida W, et al. Comparison of magnetic resonance imaging-stratified clinical pathways and systematic transrectal ultrasound-guided biopsy pathway for the detection of clinically significant prostate cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Eur Urol Oncol. 2019;2(6):605-616. doi: 10.1016/j.euo.2019.05.004
[49] Wei JT, Barocas D, Carlsson S, Coakley F, Eggener S, Etzioni R, et al. Early Detection of prostate cancer: AUA/SUO guideline part II: considerations for a prostate biopsy. J Urol. 2023;210(1):54-63. doi: 10.1097/JU.0000000000003492
[50] Elkhoury FF, Felker ER, Kwan L, Sisk AE, Delfin M, Natarajan S, et al. Comparison of targeted vs systematic prostate biopsy in men who are biopsy naive: the prospective assessment of image registration in the diagnosis of prostate cancer (PAIREDCAP) study. JAMA Surg. 2019;154(9):811-818. doi: 10.1001/jamasurg.2019.1734
[51] Ahdoot M, Wilbur AR, Reese SE, Lebastchi AH, Mehralivand S, Gomella PT, et al. MRI-targeted, systematic, and combined biopsy for prostate cancer diagnosis. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(10):917-928. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1910038
[52] Jain MA, Leslie SW, Sapra A. Prostate Cancer Screening. [Updated 2023 Oct 26]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023 Jan-. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ books/NBK556081/
[53] Abdulla A, Leslie SW. Biomarker Assays for Elevated PSA Risk Analysis. [Updated 2023 Oct 14]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-. https://www.ncbi. nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK592381/
[2] WHO. World Health Organization. International Agency for Research on Cancer. Global Cancer Observatory. Cancer Today. GLOBOCAN 2024. Population fact sheets: Chile. https://gco.iarc.who.int/ media/globocan/factsheets/populations/152-chile-fact-sheet.pdf
[3] Catalona WJ. History of the discovery and clinical translation of prostate-specific antigen. Asian J Urol. 2014;1(1):12-14. doi: 10.1016/j.ajur.2014.09.008
[4] Etzioni R, Tsodikov A, Mariotto A, Szabo A, Falcon S, Wegelin J, et al. Quantifying the role of PSA screening in the US prostate cancer mortality decline. Cancer Causes Control. 2008;19(2):175-181. doi: 10.1007/s10552-007-9083-8
[5] Moradi S, Issah A, Mohammadi H, Mirzaei K. Associations between dietary inflammatory index and incidence of breast and prostate cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrition. 2018;55-56:168-178. doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2018.04.018
[6] Bergengren O, Pekala KR, Matsoukas K, Fainberg J, Mungovan SF, Bratt O, et al. 2022 update on prostate cancer epidemiology and risk factors-a systematic review. Eur Urol. 2023;84(2):191-206. doi: 10.1016/j.eururo.2023.04.021
[7] Fang X, Wei J, He X, Lian J, Han D, An P, et al. Quantitative association between body mass index and the risk of cancer: a global Meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Int J Cancer. 2018;143(7):1595-1603. doi: 10.1002/ijc.31553
[8] Mottet N, van den Bergh RCN, Briers E, Van den Broeck T, Cumberbatch MG, De Santis M, et al. EAU-EANM-ESTRO-ESUR-SIOG Guidelines on Prostate Cancer-2020 Update. Part 1: Screening, Diagnosis, and Local Treatment with Curative Intent. Eur Urol. 2021;79(2):243-262. doi: 10.1016/j.eururo.2020.09.042
[9] Siegel RL, Miller KD, Fuchs HE, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2022. CA Cancer J Clin. 2022;72(1):7-33. doi: 10.3322/caac.21708
[10] Bell KJ, Del Mar C, Wright G, Dickinson J, Glasziou P. Prevalence of incidental prostate cancer: a systematic review of autopsy studies. Int J Cancer. 2015;137(7):1749-1757. doi: 10.1002/ijc.29538.
[11] Gong J, Kim DM, Freeman MR, Kim H, Ellis L, Smith B, et al. Genetic and biological drivers of prostate cancer disparities in Black men. Nat Rev Urol. 2023. doi: 10.1038/s41585-023-00828-w.
[12] Giri VN, Obeid E, Gross L, Bealin L, Hyatt C, Hegarty SE, et al. Inherited mutations in men undergoing multigene panel testing for prostate cancer: emerging implications for personalized prostate cancer genetic evaluation. JCO Precis Oncol. 2017;1:PO.16.00039. doi: 10.1200/PO.16.00039
[13] Johns LE, Houlston RS. A systematic review and meta-analysis of familial prostate cancer risk. BJU Int. 2003;91(9):789-794. doi: 10.1046/j.1464-410x.2003.04232.x
[14] Albright F, Stephenson RA, Agarwal N, Teerlink CC, Lowrance WT, Farnham JM, et al. Prostate cancer risk prediction based on complete prostate cancer family history. Prostate. 2015;75(4):390-398. doi: 10.1002/pros.22925
[15] Pritchard CC, Mateo J, Walsh MF, De Sarkar N, Abida W, Beltran H, et al. Inherited DNA-repair gene mutations in men with metastatic prostate cancer. N Engl J Med. 2016; 375(5):443-453. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1603144
[16] Nicolosi P, Ledet E, Yang S, Michalski S, Freschi B, O'Leary E, et al. Prevalence of germline variants in prostate cancer and implications for current genetic testing guidelines. JAMA Oncol. 2019;5(4):523-528. doi: 10.1001/jamaoncol.2018.6760
[17] Cheng HH, Sokolova AO, Schaeffer EM, Small EJ, Higano CS. Germline and somatic mutations in prostate cancer for the clinician. J Natl Compr Canc Netw. 2019;17(5):515-21. doi: 10.6004/jnccn.2019.7307
[18] Ewing CM, Ray AM, Lange EM, Zuhlke KA, Robbins CM, Tembe WD, et al. Germline mutations in HOXB13 and prostate-cancer risk. N Engl J Med. 2012;366(2):141-149. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1110000
[19] de Bono J, Mateo J, Fizazi K, Saad F, Shore N, Sandhu S, et al. Olaparib for metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(22):2091-2102. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1911440
[20] Dominguez-Valentin M, Sampson JR, Seppälä TT, Ten Broeke SW, Plazzer JP, Nakken S, et al. Cancer risks by gene, age, and gender in 6,350 carriers of pathogenic mismatch repair variants: findings from the Prospective Lynch Syndrome Database. Genet Med. 2020;22(1):15-25. doi: 10.1038/s41436-019-0596-9
[21] LaDuca H, Polley EC, Yussuf A, Hoang L, Gutierrez S, Hart SN, et al. A clinical guide to hereditary cancer panel testing: evaluation of gene-specific cancer associations and sensitivity of genetic testing criteria in a cohort of 165,000 high-risk patients. Genet Med. 2020;22(2):407-415. doi: 10.1038/s41436-019-0633-8
[22] Russo J, Giri VN. Germline testing and genetic counselling in prostate cancer. Nat Rev Urol. 2022;19(6):331-343. doi: 10.1038/s41585- 022-00580-7
[23] Giri VN, Gross L, Gomella LG, Hyatt C. How I do it: genetic counseling and genetic testing for inherited prostate cancer. Can J Urol. 2016;23(2):8247-8253.
[24] Moses KA, Sprenkle PC, Bahler C, Box G, Carlsson SV, Catalona WJ, et al. NCCN Guidelines® Insights: Prostate Cancer Early Detection, Version 1. 2023. J Natl Compr Canc Netw. 2023;21(3):236-246. doi: 10.6004/jnccn.2023.0014
[25] National Cancer Institute. 2020. SEER Cancer Stat Facts: Prostate Cancer. Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results Program. https://seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/prost.html
[26] Doan DK, Schmidt KT, Chau CH, Figg WD. Germline genetics of prostate cancer: prevalence of risk variants and clinical implications for disease management. Cancers (Basel). 2021;13(9):2154. doi: 10.3390/cancers13092154
[27] Giri VN, Knudsen KE, Kelly WK, Cheng HH, Cooney KA, Cookson MS, et al. Implementation of germline testing for prostate cancer: philadelphia prostate cancer consensus conference 2019. J Clin Oncol. 2020;38(24):2798-2811. doi: 10.1200/JCO.20.00046
[28] Erickson A, Sandeman K, Lahdensuo K, Nordling S, Kallajoki M, Seikkula H, et al. New prostate cancer grade grouping system predicts survival after radical prostatectomy. Hum Pathol. 2018;5:159-166. doi: 10.1016/j.humpath.2018.01.027
[29] Tosoian JJ, Mamawala M, Epstein JI, Landis P, Macura KJ, Simopoulos DN, et al. Active surveillance of grade group 1 prostate cancer: long-term outcomes from a large prospective cohort. Eur Urol. 2020;77(6):675-682. doi: 10.1016/j.eururo.2019.12.017
[30] Wei JT, Barocas D, Carlsson S, Coakley F, Eggener S, Etzioni R, et al. Early Detection of prostate cancer: AUA/SUO guideline part i: prostate cancer screening. J Urol. 2023;210(1):46-53. doi: 10.1097/JU.0000000000003491
[31] Preston MA. Screening for prostate cancer. In: UpToDate, Elmore JG, (Ed). (Accessed on August 7, 2023.)
[32] Schröder FH, Hugosson J, Roobol MJ, Tammela TL, Zappa M, Nelen V, et al.; ERSPC Investigators. Screening and prostate cancer mortality: results of the European Randomised Study of Screening for Prostate Cancer (ERSPC) at 13 years of follow-up. Lancet. 2014;384(9959):2027-2035. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60525-0
[33] Hugosson J, Roobol MJ, Månsson M, Tammela TLJ, Zappa M, Nelen V, et al.; ERSPC investigators. A 16-yr follow-up of the European randomized study of screening for prostate cancer. Eur Urol. 2019;76(1):43-51. doi: 10.1016/j.eururo.2019.02.009
[34] Andriole GL, Crawford ED, Grubb RL 3rd, Buys SS, Chia D, Church TR, et al.; PLCO Project Team. Mortality results from a randomized prostate cancer screening trial. N Engl J Med. 2009;360(13):1310-1319. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa0810696. Erratum in: N Engl J Med. 2009;360(17):1797.
[35] Ilic D, Djulbegovic M, Jung JH, Hwang EC, Zhou Q, Cleves A, et al. Prostate cancer screening with prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2018;362:k3519. doi: 10.1136/bmj.k3519
[36] SEER*Explorer: An interactive website for SEER cancer statistics. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute; 2023 Apr 19. https://seer.cancer.gov/statistics-network/explorer
[37] Moyer VA; U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for prostate cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med. 2012;157(2):120-134. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-157-2-201207170-00459
[38] Butler SS, Muralidhar V, Zhao SG, Sanford NN, Franco I, Fullerton ZH, et al. Prostate cancer incidence across stage, NCCN risk groups, and age before and after USPSTF Grade D recommendations against prostate specific antigen screening in 2012. Cancer. 2020;126(4):717-724. doi: 10.1002/cncr.32604
[39] EAU Guidelines. Edn. Presented at the EAU Annual Congress Milan 2023. ISBN 978-94-92671-19-6
[40] Matsukawa A, Yanagisawa T, Bekku K, Kardoust Parizi M, Laukhtina E, Klemm J, et al. Comparing the performance of digital rectal examination and prostate-specific antigen as a screening test for prostate cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Urol Oncol. 2024:S2588-9311(23)00292-4. doi: 10.1016/j.euo.2023.12.005
[41] Eichler K, Hempel S, Wilby J, Myers L, Bachmann LM, Kleijnen J. Diagnostic value of systematic biopsy methods in the investigation of prostate cancer: a systematic review. J Urol. 2006;175(5):1605-1612. doi: 10.1016/S0022-5347(05)00957-2
[42] Valerio M, Willis S, van der Meulen J, Emberton M, Ahmed HU. Methodological considerations in assessing the utility of imaging in early prostate cancer. Curr Opin Urol. 2015;25(6):536-642. doi: 10.1097/MOU.0000000000000219
[43] Shaw GL, Thomas BC, Dawson SN, Srivastava G, Vowler SL, Gnanapragasam VJ, et al. Identification of pathologically insignificant prostate cancer is not accurate in unscreened men. Br J Cancer. 2014;110(10):2405-2411. doi: 10.1038/bjc.2014.192
[44] Elwenspoek MMC, Sheppard AL, McInnes MDF, Merriel SWD, Rowe EWJ, Bryant RJ, et al. Comparison of multiparametric magnetic resonance imaging and targeted biopsy with systematic biopsy alone for the diagnosis of prostate cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Netw Open. 2019;2(8):e198427. doi: 10.1001/ jamanetworkopen.2019.8427
[45] Kasivisvanathan V, Rannikko AS, Borghi M, Panebianco V, Mynderse LA, Vaarala MH, et al.; PRECISION Study Group Collaborators. MRI-targeted or standard biopsy for prostate-cancer diagnosis. N Engl J Med. 2018; 378(19):1767-1777. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1801993
[46] Eklund M, Jäderling F, Discacciati A, Bergman M, Annerstedt M, Aly M, et al.; STHLM3 consortium. MRI-targeted or standard biopsy in prostate cancer screening. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(10):908-920. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2100852
[47] Tu X, Liu Z, Zhang C, Chang T, Xu H, Bao Y, et al. Diagnostic role of magnetic resonance imaging-targeted biopsy for prostate cancer in biopsy-naïve men: a meta-analysis. Urol Int. 2020; 104(3-4):187-198. doi: 10.1159/000504028
[48] Woo S, Suh CH, Eastham JA, Zelefsky MJ, Morris MJ, Abida W, et al. Comparison of magnetic resonance imaging-stratified clinical pathways and systematic transrectal ultrasound-guided biopsy pathway for the detection of clinically significant prostate cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Eur Urol Oncol. 2019;2(6):605-616. doi: 10.1016/j.euo.2019.05.004
[49] Wei JT, Barocas D, Carlsson S, Coakley F, Eggener S, Etzioni R, et al. Early Detection of prostate cancer: AUA/SUO guideline part II: considerations for a prostate biopsy. J Urol. 2023;210(1):54-63. doi: 10.1097/JU.0000000000003492
[50] Elkhoury FF, Felker ER, Kwan L, Sisk AE, Delfin M, Natarajan S, et al. Comparison of targeted vs systematic prostate biopsy in men who are biopsy naive: the prospective assessment of image registration in the diagnosis of prostate cancer (PAIREDCAP) study. JAMA Surg. 2019;154(9):811-818. doi: 10.1001/jamasurg.2019.1734
[51] Ahdoot M, Wilbur AR, Reese SE, Lebastchi AH, Mehralivand S, Gomella PT, et al. MRI-targeted, systematic, and combined biopsy for prostate cancer diagnosis. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(10):917-928. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1910038
[52] Jain MA, Leslie SW, Sapra A. Prostate Cancer Screening. [Updated 2023 Oct 26]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023 Jan-. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ books/NBK556081/
[53] Abdulla A, Leslie SW. Biomarker Assays for Elevated PSA Risk Analysis. [Updated 2023 Oct 14]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-. https://www.ncbi. nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK592381/
Copyright © 2024 Pablo A. Rojas, Benjamín García-Bloj, Enrique Elias, Fernando Marchant
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License