On the Influence of Chinese Architecture in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties on the Mosques in the Timurid Era
Journal: Architecture Engineering and Science DOI: 10.32629/aes.v6i4.4783
Abstract
Set against the Silk Road's cross-civilizational network, this study traces 14th–15th-century architectural exchange between Yuan-Ming China and the Timurid Empire through "entangled history". Beijing's Temple of Heaven dougong becomes Samarkand's stucco décor; Persian Sumaliqing cobalt dyes synchronised "Timur blue" and imperial porcelain. Nanjing's porcelain tower bends Islamic geometry into lotus petals, while Herat's Gawhar Shad Mosque scrolls Chinese clouds into vine borders. Yuan-Ming artisan registers and Timurid prisoner camps share Mongol military pattern; Persian builders in Yongle's Forbidden City import cool-tone glazes. "Structural symbolization" argues technical elements shed load to become power codes—yellow tiles or "Timur blue." XRF, 3-D scans and polyglot epigraphy reconstruct the pre-modern Eurasian knowledge network, refuting center-periphery models and casting the Silk Road as an imperial resonator of entangled creativity.
Keywords
entangled history; structural symbolization; Timurid architecture; Yuan-Ming architectural exchange; Silk Road material network
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[39] Wang, L. (2017). Exchange and fusion of architectural styles between Central Asia and China . Jianzhu lishi yu lilun [Architectural History and Theory], 3, 67–78.
[40] Liu, Z. (2020). "Blue" as cultural transmission: A comparative study of Timurid and Jingdezhen ceramic techniques . Wenhua jiaoliu [Cultural Exchange], 1, 101–113.
[41] Gao, X. (2016). Architectural style and technical transformations of the Yongle Forbidden City . Ming-Qing jianzhu jishu yanjiu [Studies in Ming-Qing Architectural Technology], 4, 45–56.
[42] Wang, Z. (2010). The cultural policies of the Yuan Dynasty. Journal of Asian Studies, 69(3), 565–589.
[43] Brook, T. (2010). The troubled empire: China in the Yuan and Ming dynasties. Harvard University Press.
[44] Yakuf, U. (2022). A study of the Chinese-style 'Porcelain Hall' in 15th–17th century Samarkand . Xiyu yanjiu [Western Regions Studies], 4, 137–145+169.
[45] Blair, S., & Bloom, J. (1994). The art and architecture of Islam: 1250–1800 (pp. 45–47). Yale University Press.
[46] Liang, S. (1984). A pictorial history of Chinese architecture (W. Fairbank, Ed.). MIT Press.
[47] Liu, D. (1984). Chinese classical architecture (L. Sicheng, Trans.). China Architecture & Building Press.
[48] Li, J. (2020). Cobalt sources and technological investigation of Jingdezhen blue-and-white porcelain . Wenwu [Cultural Relics], 3, 45–53.
[49] Golombek, L., & Wilber, D. (1988). The Timurid architecture of Iran and Turan (Vol. 1, pp. 214–230). Princeton University Press.
[50] Blair, S. (1993). Timurid architecture and its decoration. Muqarnas, 10, 95–108.
[51] Yu, X. (2001). Xingcha Shenglan: Collation and commentary . Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House.
[2] Werner, Michael, and Bénédicte Zimmermann. "Beyond Comparison: Histoire Croisée and the Challenge of Reflexivity." History and Theory, vol. 45, no. 1, 2006, pp. 30–50.
[3] Liu, Jingjing. "Central Asian Craftsmen and Technical Transmission in Ming-Qing Architecture." Journal of Chinese Architecture, no. 2, 2018.
[4] Wang, Liang. "Sino-Central Asian Architectural Style Exchange and Fusion." Architectural History and Theory, no. 3, 2017.
[5] Li, Jiahao. "Cobalt Blue Glaze and Jingdezhen Porcelain Technology." Cultural Relics Research, no. 5, 2019.
[6] Yu, Xianhao. "Central Asian Influence on Chinese Religious Architecture." Central Asian Studies, no. 1, 2016.
[7] Werner, M., & Zimmermann, B. (2006). Beyond comparison: Histoire croisée and the challenge of reflexivity. History and Theory, 45(1), 30–50.
[8] Golombek, L. (2002). The Timurid Architectural Heritage. In L. Komaroff & S. Carboni (Eds.), *The Legacy of Genghis Khan: Courtly Art and Culture in Western Asia 1256-1353* (pp. 176-183). Metropolitan Museum of Art.
[9] Grabar, O. (1980). The Timurid architecture of Iran and Turan. Princeton University Press.
[10] Blair, S. S. (1986). The Ilkhanid shrine complex at Natanz, Iran. Mazda Publishers.
[11] Liang, S. (1984). Zhongguo jianzhu shi [A history of Chinese architecture]. China Architecture & Building Press.
[12] Liu, Dunzhen. Zhongguo Gudai Jianzhu Shi Lunwen Ji "Collected Papers on the History of Ancient Chinese Architecture". China Architecture & Building Press, 1980.
[13] Liu, D. (1980). Zhongguo gudai jianzhu shi lunwen ji [Collected papers on the history of ancient Chinese architecture]. China Architecture & Building Press.
[14] Yu, K. (2003). The decline of Yingzao Fashi and the rise of Gongbu Yingzao Zeli. Zhongguo gudai jianzhu yanjiu [Studies in Ancient Chinese Architecture], 4, 19–24.
[15] Liang, S. (1984). A history of Chinese architecture . Joint Publishing.
[16] Xue, L. (1996). A history of ancient Chinese urban planning. East China Normal University Press.
[17] Steinhardt, N. S. (2015). China's early mosques. Edinburgh University Press.
[18] Zhang, Y. (2009). A study of glazed tile techniques in ancient Chinese architecture. Cultural Relics Press.
[19] Blair, S. (1995). Islamic architecture. Edinburgh University Press.
[20] Zhang, P. (2016). Institutionalized production of city bricks in Ming Dynasty Nanjing . Jianzhu lishi yanjiu [Architectural History Research], 2, 35–42.
[21] Manz, B. F. (2007). Power, politics and religion in Timurid Iran. Cambridge University Press.
[22] Blair, S., & Bloom, J. (1995). The art and architecture of Islam: 1250–1800. Yale University Press.
[23] Wang, J. (2016). Power and religious expression in Timurid architecture. Shijie zongjiao yanjiu [World Religions Research], 2, 77.
[24] Necipoğlu, G. (1995). The Topkapi scroll: Geometry and ornament in Islamic architecture. Getty Center.
[25] Li, J. (2012). Studies on Islamic architectural decoration in Central Asia . China Architecture & Building Press.
[26] Blair, S., & Bloom, J. (1995). The art and architecture of Islam: 1250–1800 (p. 108). Yale University Press.
[27] Golombek, L., & Wilber, D. (1988). The Timurid architecture of Iran and Turan. Princeton University Press.
[28] Dong, S. (2020). The institutional logic of Timurid architectural complexes from a perspective of complexity . Zhongya yanjiu [Central Asian Studies], 3, 34.
[29] Gao, C. (2017). Central Asian influences in Islamic architecture of Western China . Zhongguo Muslimin [Chinese Muslims], 1, 42–45.
[30] Allsen, T. T. (2001). Culture and conquest in Mongol Eurasia. Cambridge University Press.
[31] Chan, H.-L. (1980). The fall of the Yuan Dynasty. Cambridge University Press.
[32] Lu, J. (n.d.). Yongdeng craft garrison site and the Ming Dynasty artisan household system. Journal of Northwest [Incomplete entry].
[33] Manz, B. F. (2007). Power, politics and religion in Timurid Iran (pp. 95–99). Cambridge University Press.
[34] Subtelny, M. E. (1988). Art and politics in early 15th century Samarkand. Central Asiatic Journal, 32(2), 150–170.
[35] Golombek, L. (1988). Timurid architecture and its decoration (p. 117). Princeton University Press.
[36] Liu, J. (2018). Central Asian artisans and technical transmission in Ming-Qing architecture . Zhongguo jianzhu xuebao [China Architecture Journal], 2, 45–56.
[37] Blair, S. (1993). Timurid architecture and its decoration. Muqarnas, 10, 95–108.
[38] Li, J. (2019). Cobalt blue glazes and the technical inheritance of Jingdezhen blue-and-white porcelain . Wenwu yanjiu [Cultural Relics Research], 5, 122–134.
[39] Wang, L. (2017). Exchange and fusion of architectural styles between Central Asia and China . Jianzhu lishi yu lilun [Architectural History and Theory], 3, 67–78.
[40] Liu, Z. (2020). "Blue" as cultural transmission: A comparative study of Timurid and Jingdezhen ceramic techniques . Wenhua jiaoliu [Cultural Exchange], 1, 101–113.
[41] Gao, X. (2016). Architectural style and technical transformations of the Yongle Forbidden City . Ming-Qing jianzhu jishu yanjiu [Studies in Ming-Qing Architectural Technology], 4, 45–56.
[42] Wang, Z. (2010). The cultural policies of the Yuan Dynasty. Journal of Asian Studies, 69(3), 565–589.
[43] Brook, T. (2010). The troubled empire: China in the Yuan and Ming dynasties. Harvard University Press.
[44] Yakuf, U. (2022). A study of the Chinese-style 'Porcelain Hall' in 15th–17th century Samarkand . Xiyu yanjiu [Western Regions Studies], 4, 137–145+169.
[45] Blair, S., & Bloom, J. (1994). The art and architecture of Islam: 1250–1800 (pp. 45–47). Yale University Press.
[46] Liang, S. (1984). A pictorial history of Chinese architecture (W. Fairbank, Ed.). MIT Press.
[47] Liu, D. (1984). Chinese classical architecture (L. Sicheng, Trans.). China Architecture & Building Press.
[48] Li, J. (2020). Cobalt sources and technological investigation of Jingdezhen blue-and-white porcelain . Wenwu [Cultural Relics], 3, 45–53.
[49] Golombek, L., & Wilber, D. (1988). The Timurid architecture of Iran and Turan (Vol. 1, pp. 214–230). Princeton University Press.
[50] Blair, S. (1993). Timurid architecture and its decoration. Muqarnas, 10, 95–108.
[51] Yu, X. (2001). Xingcha Shenglan: Collation and commentary . Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House.
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